In the post-reforms period, both male and female workforce participation rates (WPR) have seen a decline in rural areas while they have improved in urban areas. A study on worker participation rates based on the 2001 census data by professor Arup Mitra of the Institute of Economic Growth (IEG) and Seema Joshi of the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) states that the urban female workforce participation rate has improved by 2.4%, from 8.2% in 1991 to 10.6% in 2001. This, according to the study, is indicative of rising literacy levels amongst women.